"Take calculated risks. That is quite different from being rash.”
- Gen George S. Patton

Last month, we gave an introduction of urban operations.  As a review we provided a definition of urban operations, gave a brief history of urban operations, described the challenges of conducting urban operations, laid out a possible framework for planning and executing urban operations, listed the fundamentals of urban operations, and finally discussed how you can utilize the battlefield operating systems in conducting operations in urban terrain.  We hope this provided a good general background so we can get into some more specifics regarding urban operations the following months. 

This month we will focus on Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield (IPB) as it relates specifically to urban operations.  As you may remember, we covered IPB exclusively in articles 12 and 13 of this series.  In article 12, we gave an overview of IPB and then zeroed in on the first two steps of the process: Define the Battlefield Environment and Describe the Battlefield’s Effects.  Article 13 then covered the remaining two steps: Evaluate the Threat and Determine Threat Courses of Action.  Since that organization worked fairly well (at least in our minds!), we will break up our IPB discussion into the same two parts.  Thus, this article goes into detail on the first two steps.

AS A REVIEW

If you are not inclined to go back to the previous articles on IPB let’s quickly review some general key points before moving to our urban operations discussion.  As we all know review and repetition can not hurt!         

What is IPB?

It is the systematic, continuous process of analyzing the threat, terrain, and environment.  It is conducted throughout planning and the execution of the operation.  Within this definition there are several key points we want to reinforce.  1) It is systematic in that it consists of four steps that build upon each other.  2) IPB is continuous throughout your planning, preparation, and execution of your mission.  Why is it continuous? Well, because the conditions on the battlefield are continually changing.  The occurrence of any event on the battlefield will undoubtedly have some effect on the enemy, terrain, or environment.  The tactician who only conducts IPB during planning will not be successful.  3) To conduct IPB is work!  Not only must you gather information, but you must take the next step and analyze it. To simply take what is provided you and not analyze it yourself and take it down to your level is a recipe for failure.  

Why IPB?

By just understanding the above definition, you can determine why IPB is so critical to mission success.  If IPB is conducted effectively many good things transpire.  These include:

• It enables you, the commander, to have an understanding of the complexities that exist on the battlefield.  This understanding enables you to make quicker and more effective decisions when they are needed.
• The steps of the IPB process afford you the ability to develop critical products that can be used throughout the mission and future operations.
• IPB reveals enemy capabilities and vulnerabilities.  It is those vulnerabilities that the good tactician will take advantage upon.
• The IPB process lets you take your understanding of the environment and terrain and then utilize it to determine the range of courses of action your enemy can pursue.
• With an understanding of what the enemy can (or will) do, you can develop your own plan of execution.  As you’ve heard many times, “The enemy has a vote.”
• It reduces uncertainties for you in regards to the enemy, terrain, and the environment.  The more uncertainties you can eliminate while seeking to keep uncertainty in the mind of your opponent – obviously the better.
• IT ENABLES YOU TO UNDERSTAND THE TERRAIN AND THE ENEMY.  IT ASSISTS YOU IN UNDERSTANDING YOURSELF.

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IPB Steps

Within the IPB process, there are four key steps. These steps are: 1) Define the Battlefield Environment. 2) Describe the Battlefield’s Effects.  3) Evaluate the Threat. and 4) Determine Threat Courses of Action.  Each of these steps builds upon another in terms of utilizing information to enable analysis.    There is no set time standard to complete each step.  You will spend as much time as feasible on each step to ensure you achieve the detail you need.  As is the case in any process, the more repetitions you conduct; the more comfortable you will become. Below you will find a brief description on the purpose of each step.     

1) Define the Battlefield Environment.  This step sets the conditions for the entire process.  You will study the battlefield and identify specific areas you want to focus upon during the rest of the process.  You will collect material and information you need during the rest of the process.  By defining the battlefield environment you will begin to identify intelligence gaps you have.  These intelligence gaps will allow you to begin to formulate your reconnaissance plan.  

2) Describe the Battlefield’s Effects.  Using step one for focus, you will analyze the environment (terrain. weather, and civil considerations) to determine how it may affect the enemy and your potential courses of action.  This is a critical step in order to exploit opportunities that may exist on the battlefield.
   
3) Evaluate the Threat.  This is the step in which you truly dissect the enemy.  You will look at various things including his doctrine, tactics, what equipment he possesses, his strengths and weaknesses, capabilities, tendencies etc….  For some enemies you fight, this may be a relatively easy task.  However, for others this could be extremely difficult because little information may exist on your foe.

4) Determine Threat Courses of Action.  In the final step, we take everyone we have done earlier and put it all together to develop feasible courses of action the enemy may execute.  We do not tie ourselves down to one or two courses of action.  We look at the realm of feasible possibilities that exist.  Depending on our time, we can then go into detail on as many as we can. 

Having discussed what is IPB, why it is important, and highlighting the steps of IPB; we will focus the remainder of the article in detailing the first two steps of the process as they pertain to urban operations.

Step 1 — Define the Battlefield Environment

Just as in any operation, we must determine our battlefield environment.  Again, this step provides the focus for the rest of the process. This is critical in urban operations because as we discussed last month, the key to winning on the urban battlefield is isolation.  Thus, we first need to define our area of operations (where we plan to isolate) and our area of interest (the areas outside that can directly influence our ability to isolate).  In a normal operation, this is fairly cut and dried (if anything in tactics is!).  Second, we need to gather the information (or tools).  Just we do in any operation; we want to obtain as much information on the area of operations, the area of interest, and of the enemy as possible.  As you know, this facilitates our ability to conduct the subsequent steps of IPB.  First, there are basic weather and general terrain characteristics we gather that are basic to any operation and are included in article 12.  However, within an urban operation, we need to find out as much as we can in reference to infrastructure and the population.  These are the elements that truly impact the urban battlefield.  We gather any photos and blueprints of the urban area (specifically the area of operations and the area of influence) that are available.  We seek all available information regarding the society (culture, demographics, ethnic groups, etc.).  This is painstaking work, but must be done.  If you take short-cuts in this process, you will suffer the repercussions later during the fight.

In summary, within this step, there are two critical things we want to accomplish.  First, we want to define the geographical area in which we are to fight (isolate) and the area surrounding it that could influence our operations.  Second, we will gather the information we will need to assist us in the remaining steps.  This is science with the art portion beginning in step 2.  Thus, by defining the geographical area and obtaining your tools you can now move to step 2 and begin analyzing the effect these have on you and your enemy.

Step 2 — Describe the Battlefield’s Effects

The next step in the process is to take this data and analyze in regards to how it may affect your potential courses of action and those of your enemy.  This analysis will assist you in determining the options available to you and the enemy and can provide ways on how you can take options away from your foe.  In describing the battlefield in an urban operation, we focus our study in the areas of terrain, weather, and civil considerations.  Obviously, the urban environment brings to the forefront many unique facets in each of these areas.  We will now look at each area in detail.

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TERRAIN

The terrain in the urban environment dramatically impacts both the way a defender defends and an attacker attacks.  It provides ach side numerous opportunities to exploit.  The key is obviously finding those opportunities.  In general, you will find things such as street width, the construction of buildings, and the multi-dimensional of urban terrain will impact all the battlefield operating systems.  Additionally, urban terrain will truly affect the human dimension of war; as combat is characterized by close engagements.

As always, there are various techniques to study urban terrain. Below you will find a technique that systematically dissects the urban battlefield and concludes by analyzing the effects using OAKOC:
O (Obstacles)
A (Avenues of Approach)
K (Key Terrain)   
O (Observation and Fields of Fire) 
C (Cover and Concealment) 

The framework steps to studying urban terrain are:
Step 1 – General Urban Description
Step 2 – Urban Patterns
Step 3 – Pattern Effects
Step 4 – Functional Zones
Step 5 – Street Patterns
Step 6 – Lines of Communication
Step 7 – Multi-Dimensional Space
Step 8 – Structural Types
Step 9 – Military Aspects of Terrain (OAKOC)

Let’s look at each step in the framework.

Step 1 — General Urban Description

We begin our analysis by describing the general nature of the urban area within which we will fight.  Is it Mogadishu, Baghdad, Hue, or Vicksburg?  In other words; is it a big place or not, is it densely populated or not, is it modern or dilapidated…  This sets the groundwork for the remaining steps.  Again, we will want to quickly want to take this general description and probe into our specific area of operations and area of interest

As mentioned in the last article we use the following to characterize urban areas:

Villages – population 3,000 or less…  Battalion Task Forces & Company Teams bypass, move through, defend from, and attack objectives within villages as part of Brigade operations.

Towns – population over 3,000 to 100,000; not part of major urban complex… Operations involve Brigades or higher.

City – population over 100,000 to 1 million.
 
Metropolis – population over 1 million to 10 million.

Megalopolis – population over 10 million.  Operations in cities, metropolises, and megalopolises require divisions or above.

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Step 2 – Urban Patterns

Urban Patterns.  Urban patterns address the general layout of the city.  Older cities radiate from a central site or may be formed along a series of ‘town squares’.  Newer cities follow a block layout while many cities have several embedded patterns that reflect the age of the area.  Understanding these patterns enable you to better determine how to isolate a particular.  We generally consider 4 types of urban patterns.  These are: satellite, network, linear, and segment.  After we determine these patterns, we then establish what effects the pattern will have on operations (the next step). Below you will find a sketch of each pattern followed by a definition of each.

Satellite Pattern.  This pattern consists of the central hub and dependent, dispersed smaller built-up areas with linear arrays along the connecting links. Most lines of communication (LOCs) within the urban area tend to gravitate towards the hub.

Network Pattern.  This is similar in appearance to the satellite pattern, but is much more complex.  The pattern represents the interlocking of the primary hubs to satellite patterns.  Formed primarily of towns and cities, its elements are more self-sufficient and less supportive of each other, although a dominant hub may exist.  Major LOCs within a network are more extensive than a satellite and may take on a rectangular rather than convergent form.  The natural terrain here may be more diverse than in a single satellite array.

Linear Pattern. This is normally a derivative of the satellite and network patterns.  The linear pattern usually occurs from the stringing of minor urban areas along a confined natural terrain corridor, such as an elongated valley, a body of water, or a man-made communications route. A linear pattern can be used to set a series of defensive positions.

Segment Pattern.  This pattern usually occurs when a dominant natural or manmade feature such as a river, canal, or major highway splits an urban area.  The segment patter may be considered as a subset of either the satellite or network patterns, or within a major hub. This pattern may influence the assignment of boundaries and other control measures.

Step 3 – Pattern Effects

After determining the patterns, we can now answer the so what.  Looking at the above sketches, you can see how each pattern can effect the maneuver of units. Thus, when maneuver is effected so is firepower.  We break these effects into the categories of blocking, funnel, and funnel-fan.

Blocking Effect – A particular pattern can,  because of congestion, limited road networks, and obstacles assist in blocking or severely degrading mounted or dismounted maneuver both in and out of the particular urban area.

Funnel Effect – As the name suggest a pattern can funnel or canalize a unit’s maneuver into a particular area.  Obviously, this effect hinders the ability of a commander to mass his forces.  Thus, he must be careful to not reinforce failure by continually sending forces into the funnel that the opposition is defending with major resources.

Funnel-Fan Effect.  This is the offshoot of the funnel effect.  This occurs when a pattern forces the funnel effect and then opens up so the unit can then once again spread out his forces.

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Step 4 – Functional Zones

In any given urban area there are a number of differing landscapes.  The industrial park is vastly different than the residential areas.  During the battle of Stalingrad, the residential area burned to the ground and fell to the Germans in short order while the large factory buildings held out against all assaults and turned the tide against the Germans.  Thus, you must determine what goes on in particular areas of an urban area.  This allows you to better understand the population, society, and culture. It can assist you in answering things such as: the prevalent type of building composition, when there are likely to be crowds, types of vehicles, social and educational level of population, street patterns, road construction etc.

We typically divide an urban area into the following functional zones: city core, commercial ribbon, core periphery, residential sprawl, outlying industrial areas and outlying high-rise areas. Below you will find a photograph of these functional zones, followed by definitions of each.

City Core.  This is the hub of the urban area and usually contains the area’s downtown or central business district.  It is normally fairly small and compact, but contains the majority of the cities high-rise buildings varying in height.

Commercial Ribbon. Commercial ribbons are composed of rows of stores, shops, and restaurants that are built along both sides of major streets through built-up areas. Typically, such streets are 25 meters wide or more. The buildings in the outer areas are uniformly two to three stories tall—about one story taller than the dwellings on the streets behind them

Core Periphery. The core periphery is located at the edges of the city core.  It normally consists of streets 12 – 20 meters wide with continuous fronts of brick or concrete buildings. The building heights are fairly uniform—2 or 3 stories in small towns, 5 to 10 or more stories in large cities

Residential Sprawl. Residential sprawl areas consist mainly of low houses or apartments that are one to three stories tall. The area is primarily composed of detached dwellings that are usually arranged in irregular patterns along streets, with many smaller open areas between structures

Outlying Industrial Areas. These areas generally consist of clusters of industrial buildings varying from one to five stories in height. Buildings generally vary dramatically in size and composition to match the needs of the particular businesses they house. Industrial parks are good examples of this category

Outlying High-Rise Areas. These areas are similar in composition to city core areas, but may be composed of clusters of more modern multistory high-rise buildings in outlying parts of the city. Building height and size may vary dramatically. Generally, there is more open space between buildings located in the outlying high-rise areas than is found within the city core area.

Step 5 – Street Patterns

As discussed earlier, urban fighting is characterized by extremely close engagements.  Thus, it is critical to understand the street network of a particular area.  Streets will radically effect maneuver, command and control, and lines of communication.  An understanding of the street network sets the conditions for planning on how to isolate an area.   We categorize street patterns into radial, grid, or irregular. Certainly, a city can contain all of these patterns or various combinations of the patterns.  Below you will find a sketch of the patterns followed by definitions of each.

Radial – In this pattern, everything revolves around the center and then moves outward.  Many cities, over the years will continue to add rings around the radial as the urban area size increases.  Because of this, an attacking commander must be careful that the street pattern does not funnel his forces into the center.
  
Grid (Checkerboard) – This is the most adaptable and universal form of street pattern in an urban area. This pattern typically aids in command and control.

Irregular – This pattern usually results when a city has not planned its network well or has simply outgrown its infrastructure.  At a quick look you can see this pattern lends itself to unpredictability for each side.

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Step 6 – Lines of Communication

You must identify all lines of communication within the urban area.  These include key road networks, airports, rivers, canals, rail networks, communications networks (radio, tv, phone, etc.), power facilities, and subways. Each of these can have an immense impact on the operations within an urban area.

Step 7 – Multi-Dimensional Space

This is one of the most critical aspects of urban terrain. It is multi-dimensional space and large civilian populations that really sets urban IPB apart from traditional IPB.  Unlike the conventional battlefield, a commander must plan to fight above ground, ground, or below ground.  If he neglects one area, the results could be catastrophic for his unit.  Within an urban area we divide it into the following dimensions:  urban airspace, supersurface, intrasurface, surface, and subsurface.  Below you will find a sketch of these dimensions followed by a discussion of each.

Urban Airspace – This enables both sides a rapid avenue of approach into and out of an urban area.  As history has shown this avenue has a great deal of risk associated with it (of course, Somalia quickly comes to mind).  In analyzing airspace, you must identify power lines, towers, sign poles, and billboards for aviators. The congestion of the city also makes it a haven for forces to shoot down aircraft (rotary and fixed wing).

Supersurface – This is the area at the tops of buildings (roofs, apex, etc.).  The first thing that comes to mind with the supersurface is that it is preferred location for snipers.  Other possibilities for use on the supersurface are the placement of your hand held air defense systems, the ability to shoot down at armor vehicles, and concealing your observation posts. 

Intrasurface.  This is the interior of buildings and includes the floors from the ground to the roof.  Depending on the height of the building, personnel can be concealed near windows to provide the same functions as in the supersurface.  Fighting inside the intrasurface is perhaps the most intense of the any environment.   

Surface.  This includes the ground, street and water level.  Because of this, this is the primary space for almost all maneuver.  In most definitions this also includes the ground floor of buildings.

Subsurface.  These are all the areas below the surface area (both subterranean and underwater).  This includes sewers, subways, cellars, tunnels, drainage systems, etc…. These generally are very restrictive maneuver routes, but can be highly effective if the opponent has discounted their use.

Step 8 – Structural Types

A factory is harder to ‘take’ than a grocery store yet a grocery store might collapse on you while you fight for it…  All buildings are not created equal.  The way a building is constructed determines how you approach it.  Before we take a look at construction we must always remember a few generalities or truisms: Hospitals are normally No-Fire Zone (protected under the provisions of the medical facilities Geneva Conventions). Other NFZ’s may also exist.

Sewers, subways, and other underground systems may provide covered infiltration and small-unit approach routes.  Elevated systems and mass transit routes provide mobility between city sectors.  Utility facilities are key targets and their destruction can hinder the capabilities of defending forces.  Stadiums and sports fields provide excellent civilian and POW holding areas or artillery firing positions.  They may also be used as interrogation centers, helipads, and sheltered ammunition storage areas.  Public baths and swimming pools can serve as an alternate water source for drinking, washing, or other sanitary needs.  Construction sites can provide lumber for fighting positions and can serve as repair and obstacle construction facilities. Knowing the structural type is key in determining the method of combat you may use in the urban operation and the types of weapon systems utilized.

Let’s look at some characteristics of mass and framed buildings.

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Building Construction

Mass buildings:  Mass-construction brick building
     - thick lower walls
 - small vertically aligned windows 
Mass-construction stone building
    - thick walls
 - deeply recessed windows
Wall and slab building
Mass buildings are highly defendable and are easily converted into strongpoints.

Framed buildings:  Framed building skeleton
 - large open bays
 - concrete / steel columns
 - slab floors
 - exterior glass / thin material
 Heavy clad walls
 - central entrance
 - frame behind brick wall
Frame buildings are dangerous.  They can collapse on your or burst into flames.  Soldiers my also be wounded by their own fires as they pierce, pass through, or fragment the less substantial framed walls.

Brick buildings.

Let’s categorize an urban area using building types.

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Step 9 – Military Aspects of Terrain (OAKOC)

Now that we have set the conditions for terrain analysis (the past 8 steps), it is time to put it together and answer the so what.  The best way to conduct this analysis is through OAKOC (discussed in detail in articles 1 and 12 of the series).  As mentioned in these articles, each type of environment (desert, woods, urban terrain etc.) provides different variables. Certainly, a solid case can be made that urban terrain provides the most unique variables. Before we give you some tidbits to think about using OAKOC in the urban environment, let’s review some definitions.

Obstacles – Any natural or manmade terrain features that stop, impede, or divert military movement (both ground & air).        

Avenue of Approach – an air or ground route of an attacking force of a given size leading to its objective or to key terrain in its path.                    
Key Terrain – Any locality or area the seizure or retention of which affords a marked advantage to either combatant.    
 Decisive Terrain is:
• Key terrain that has an extraordinary impact on the mission;
• Relatively rare; will not be present in every situation;
• Successful accomplishment of the mission depends on seizing or retaining it;
• Commander designates to communicate its importance

Observation and Fields of Fire
• Observation – the ability to see the enemy either visually or through the use of surveillance.
• Fields of Fire – the area that a weapon or group of weapons may effectively cover with fire from a given position.

Cover and Concealment
• Cover – Protection from the effects of direct & indirect fires.
• Concealment  – Protection from observation.

Let’s look at some things you may want to consider under each aspect.

Obstacles
• Rubble (either emplaced or caused by indirect or direct fires) is a constant impediment.
• Disabled vehicles (either emplaced or caused by indirect or direct fires) can hinder vehicle maneuver.  Although nothing much can stop an M1!
• Ensure you know weight classifications for bridges.
• Underpasses and tunnels can have narrow passages or may be destroyed.
• Developed road networks may have concrete medians or steep embankments.
• As we know from current operations, roads can be a haven for improvised explosive devices.
• Power lines can significantly effect air mobility.
• Buildings can be set on fire to use as obstacles. The subsequent smoke can greatly hinder dismounted maneuver.
• Nothing can be a bigger obstacle than a crowd of people.
• Don’t neglect the man-made obstacles.  Smart opponents always tie them into the existing terrain.
• Many urban areas have rivers running through them which can become significant obstacles.

Avenue of Approach   
• Remember you have airspace, surface, supersurface, and subsurface avenues of approach.
• Related to above, ensure any bridges can hold weight of vehicles.  If a bridge can’t hold the 60 tons of an M1, it is not a viable avenue of approach for your tanks.
• Review your street patterns to identify potential ambush points along your avenues of approach.
• Identify power lines and building heights that could hinder air avenues of approach.
• Analyze rivers for width, water flow, depth, fordability, and bank grade.
• Identify possible locations for helicopter landing zones 
• An urban areas system of lighting (street lights) can effect avenues of approach (mounted and dismounted).
• Subway and sewer systems can make for an excellent avenue of approach.  This is especially if you have the intelligence on how the system is composed.
• Be careful on the composition of railways systems.  Raised track can hinder mobility.

Key Terrain
• There are certainly numerous potential locations for key terrain in an urban area.  Again, it is critical to narrow the focus to those locations that enable you to isolate the area if you are attacking.  Conversely, you must determine those locations that assist your opponent in isolating you if you are defending.
• Study your patterns and determine key intersections.  These could be key terrain.
• Locations of cultural, economic, political and society significance could be key.  They are important to the populace and their support could be critical.
• A dominant building in your area of operation could be key terrain.
• If an area possesses highground, it could be key terrain.
• The possession of radio and television stations is critical in information operations. 
• Identify choke points and narrow streets   
• Be cautious of protected buildings or locations in an urban area.  Some opponents will utilize these locations for military operations.

Observation and Fields of Fire
• An urban area is filled with dead space which greatly effects weapons capabilities.
• The urban environment is a hotbed for smoke and dust which severely hinder observation.
• The lights of an urban area can all but negate any night vision advantage you may have over an opponent who may not have that technology.
• Rubble will effect fields of fire.
• The engagement ranges in the urban environment are greatly diminished.  Included in this are your minimum safe distances to fire certain weapons and backblast areas.
• Consider your elevation and depression of weapons.
• Ricochets are always a factor in urban fighting.
• As discussed in the last article, an urban area greatly effects the use of indirect fires. 
• Units who use laser technology may find certain areas can effect their usefulness.
• Civilians on the battlefield will effect fields of fire.
• Street patterns will offer many potential ambush sites.

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Cover and Concealment
• An urban area has limitless possibilities for cover and concealment.  Almost anything can be used, including cars, dumpsters, etc….
•  Again, cover and concealment can come from surface, supersurface, and subsurface areas.
• Most urban areas will have numerous trees and different types of vegetation which can be used for cover and concealment.
• Certainly, the lighting systems of an urban area will effect cover and concealment.
• Obviously, buildings will add to cover and concealment.

Below you will find an excellent chart (click for a larger version)

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WEATHER

After analyzing terrain, it is time to consider the impacts of weather on urban operations.

Just as in any environment, we want to analyze the impacts of weather on urban operations. Remember military effects during urban operations are similar to any operational environment.  We will look at the impacts of visibility, wind, precipitation, cloud cover, and temperature (humidity) on the urban battlefield. 

Visibility
• Night navigation in urban terrain can be just as difficult as other environments.
• Don’t discount the moon’s illumination on night urban operation.  It can be just as important as in other environments.
• Combinations of bad weather dramatically impact visibility.
• City smog certainly hinders visibility.

Wind
• Street patterns can greatly alter wind speeds and wind impact.  These patterns can cause swirling wings and consequently effect the use of smoke.
• High winds can all but shutdown rotary wing operations.
• Winds can reduce the effectiveness of communication systems.

Precipitation
• Significant rain can impact road networks.  
• Significant rain can impact sewer systems and impact subsurface operations.
• Sewage overflow can create a humanitarian crisis.
• Significant rain can flood low lying areas and can all but eliminate their use for maneuver.
• Winter precipitation (snow and freezing rain) can paralyze transportation systems.

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Cloud Cover
• Cloud cover will limit illumination.
•  Heavy cloud cover will effect technological weapons and systems (unmanned aerial systems).
• Cloud cover can effect thermal signatures.
• Dense cloud cover can limit or even shutdown rotary wing operations.

Temperature (humidity)
• Urban fighting is physically draining in itself.  Add high or low temperatures or high humidity and you compound the difficulty.
• Urban areas commonly contain air inversion layers.  These layers trap dust and pollutants which hinder visibility.
• Air inversion layers can also create a rise in temperatures. 
• Air inversion changes can impact night vision devices.
• Cold temperatures increase logistical requirements for fuel and food.
• Hotter temps increase water consumption.
• Not only will temperature extremes effect you, but also civilians in the area.
• High humidity will effect the use and accuracy of sensors.

CIVIL CONSIDERATIONS

The final area in which we describe the battlefield’s effects is civil considerations.  This of course is often the most difficult to describe and perhaps the most important.  As we discussed in article 12 of the series, a good system to utilize in analyzing civil considerations is the acronym ASCOPE.  This stands for Areas, Structures, Capabilities, Organizations, People, and Events.  Let’s review the definition of each. 

ASCOPE:

Areas – These are key civilian areas within your area of operations that are normally not of military significance. 
Structures – These are generally manmade edifices that can have key military and civilian consequences. 
Capabilities – These are the abilities of the host nation, an ally or aggressor to provide services and functions to the local populace.   In regards to these functions and services, you look at current capabilities and predict what those capabilities will be following combat.  You analyze what your role will be and what resources you will have to expend to keep the functions and services continuing.  
Organizations – These are organized non-military groups that exist in the area that are a current part of the community or may arrive in the area based on operations.  .
People –These are the non-military personnel that live in the area.  In analyzing the people you want to focus on languages, culture, history, formal and informal leaders, religion etc…  This is demanding work and in many instances critical to achieving your final endstate.
Events – These can be routine, planned, unplanned or cyclical activities that can affect your overall operations in an area. 

Below are examples of things you should consider in each category which could effect operations in an urban area.

ASCOPE:

Areas
• Where are the political/social/religious boundaries of your area of operations/interest (AO/AI)?
• Are there centers of government located in the AO/AI?
• Are there locations that house political dissidents or criminal gangs in your AO/AI?
•  Are there areas that you can relocate displaced civilians if required?
• Where is trading done in the AO/AI?

Structures
• Are there cultural sites (churches, mosques, temples) in the AO/AI?
• Are there medical facilities in the AO/AI?
• Are there bridges, communication facilities and energy systems you can use in the AO/AI?
• Are there jailhouses, warehouses or schools in the AO/AI you may utilize?
• Where are the police stations located in the AO/AI?

Capabilities
• Is there water and electricity capability in the AO/AI?
• Is there a public transportation capability in the AO/AI?
• Is there a capability to provide public security (by the populace) in the AO/AI if needed?
• Is there a capability to provide medical care to the civilian populace in the AO/AI?
• What capabilities exist in the AO/AI to transport food and supplies?
• Is there a sanitation capability in the AO/AI?
• Is there a fire fighting capability in the AO/AI?
 
Organizations
• Are there religious groups in the AO/AI?
• Are there criminal groups or gangs in the AO/AI?
• Are there established labor unions in the AO/AI?
• Are there law enforcement groups in the AO/AI?
• Are there or will Non-Governmental Organizations be in the AO/AI?

People
• Who are the key civilian leaders in the AO/AI?
• Are there civilians in the AO/AI with special skills?
• Who are the interpreters living in the AO/AI who could be utilized?
• Are there any demobilized soldiers located in the AO/AI?
• Understand the society, social structure, culture, power, and interests of the populace in the AO/AI?

Events  
• When are the holidays honored by the populace?
• What are the market routines in the AO/AI?
• Are there any scheduled elections in the AO/AI?
• When are the normal paydays in the AO/AI?
• When do religious activities take place in the AO/AI?

SUMMARY

IPB in any environment is difficult business.  In the urban environment it is even more complicated.  As you have seen the urban environment brings many unique aspects to it.  Its terrain is complex and can change after the landing of one artillery round.  Weather can effect the urban area in many different ways.  Finally, the civil considerations within the urban environment make it the most complex of all environments.  In this article, we began to provide you a way to make sense out this complex environment.  We concentrated on the first two steps of the process — Define the Battlefield Environment and Describe the Battlefield’s Effects.  These steps set the conditions to enable us to develop viable courses of action for our opponent. 

NEXT MONTH

In our next article, we will focus on steps 3 and 4 of the IPB process – Evaluate the Threat and Develop Threat Courses of Action.

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